ON THE
PHILOSOPHY
OF
DISCOVERY.
Cambridge:
PRINTED BY C. J. CLAY, M.A.
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
ON THE
PHILOSOPHY OF DISCOVERY,
CHAPTERS HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL;
BY
WILLIAM WHEWELL, D.D.
MASTER OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTE OF FRANCE.
INCLUDING THE COMPLETION OF THE THIRD EDITION OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE INDUCTIVE SCIENCES.
ΛΑΜΠΑΔΙΑ ΕΧΟΝΤΕΣ ΔΙΑΔΩΣΟΥΣΙΝ ΑΛΛΗΛΟΙΣ
LONDON:
JOHN W. PARKER AND SON, WEST STRAND.
1860.
The following are the latest editions of the series of works which has been published connected with the present subject:
History of the Inductive Sciences, 3 Vols. 1857. History of Scientific Ideas, 2 Vols. 1858. Novum Organon Renovatum, 1 Vol. 1858. On the Philosophy of Discovery, 1 Vol. 1860.
To the History of the Inductive Sciences are appended two Indexes (in Vol. 1.), an Index of Proper Names, and an Index of Technical Terms. These Indexes, and the Tables of Contents of the other works, will enable the reader to refer to any person or event included in this series.
PREFACE
The two works which I entitled The History of the Inductive Sciences, and The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, were intended to present to the reader a view of the steps by which those portions of human knowledge which are held to be most certain and stable have been acquired, and of the philosophical principles which are involved in those steps. Each of these steps was a scientific Discovery, in which a new conception was applied in order to bind together observed facts. And though the conjunction of the observed facts was in each case an example of logical Induction, it was not the inductive process merely, but the novelty of the result in each case which gave its peculiar character to the History; and the Philosophy at which I aimed was not the Philosophy of Induction, but the Philosophy of Discovery. In the present edition I have described this as my object in my Title.
A great part of the present volume consists of chapters which composed the twelfth Book of the Philosophy in former editions, which Book was then described as a 'Review of Opinions on the nature of Knowledge and the Method of seeking it.' I have added to this part several new chapters, on Plato, Aristotle, the Arabian Philosophers, Francis Bacon, Mr. Mill, Mr. Mansel, the late Sir William Hamilton, and the German philosophers Kant, Fichte, Schelling and Hegel. I might, if time had allowed, have added a new chapter on Roger Bacon, founded on his Opus Minus and other works, recently published for the first time under the direction of the Master of the Rolls; a valuable contribution to the history of philosophy. But the review of this work would not materially alter the estimate of Roger Bacon which I had derived from the Opus Majus.
But besides these historical and critical surveys of the philosophy of others, I have ventured to introduce some new views of my own; namely, views which bear upon the philosophy of religion. I have done so under the conviction that no philosophy of the universe can satisfy the minds of thoughtful men which does not deal with such questions as inevitably force themselves on our notice, respecting the Author and the Object of the universe; and also under the conviction that every philosophy of the universe which has any consistency must suggest answers, at least conjectural, to such questions. No Cosmos is complete from which the question of Deity is excluded; and all Cosmology has a side turned towards Theology. Though I am aware therefore how easy it is, on this subject, to give offence and to incur obloquy, I have not thought it right to abstain from following out my philosophical principles to their results in this department of speculation. The results do not differ materially from those at which many pious and thoughtful speculators have arrived in previous ages of the world; though they have here, as seems to me, something of novelty in their connection with the philosophy of science. But this point I willingly leave to the calm decision of competent judges.
I have added in an Appendix various Essays, previously published at different times, which may serve perhaps to illustrate some points of the history and philosophy of science.
TRINITY LODGE,
February 8, 1856.
ON
THE PHILOSOPHY OF DISCOVERY.
CONTENTS.
The chapters marked thus * appear now for the first time.
The chapters marked thus † have appeared in other works.
CHAP. I. INTRODUCTION.
CHAP. II. PLATO.
CHAP. III. * ADDITIONAL REMARKS ON PLATO. 1. The Doctrine of Ideas. 2. The Doctrine of the One and Many. 3. The notion of the nature and aim of Science. 4. The Survey of existing Sciences. 5. The Constitution of the human Mind.
CHAP. IV. ARISTOTLE.
CHAP. V. * ADDITIONAL REMARKS ON ARISTOTLE. 1. Induction. 2. Invention. 3. The One in the Many. 4. The "Five Words." 5. Aristotle's contribution to the Physical Sciences. 6. Aristotle's Astronomy. 7. Aristotle on Classification. 8. F. Bacon on Aristotle. 9. Discovery of Causes. 10. Plato and Aristotle. 11. Aristotle against Plato's Ideas.
CHAP. VI. THE LATER GREEKS.
CHAP. VII. THE ROMANS.
CHAP. VIII. * ARABIAN PHILOSOPHERS.
CHAP. IX. THE SCHOOLMEN OF THE MIDDLE AGES.
CHAP. X. THE INNOVATORS OF THE MIDDLE AGES. Raymond Lully.
CHAP. XI. THE INNOVATORS OF THE MIDDLE AGES--continued. Roger Bacon.
CHAP. XII. THE REVIVAL OF PLATONISM. 1. Causes of Delay in the Advance of Knowledge. 2. Causes of Progress. 3. Hermolaus Barbarus, &c. 4. Nicolaus Cusanus. 5. Manilius Ficinus. 6. Francis Patricius. 7. Picus, Agrippa, &c. 8. Paracelsus, Fludd, &c.
CHAP. XIII. THE THEORETICAL REFORMERS OF SCIENCE. 1. Bernardinus Telesius. 2. Thomas Campanella. 3. Andrew Cæsalpinus. 4. Giordano Bruno. 5. Peter Ramus. 6. The Reformers in General. 7. Melancthon.
CHAP. XIV. THE PRACTICAL REFORMERS OF SCIENCE. 1. Character of the Practical Reformers. 2. Leonardo da Vinci. 3. Copernicus. 4. Fabricius. 5. Maurolycus. 6. Benedetti. 7. Gilbert. 8. Galileo. 9. Kepler. 10. Tycho.
CHAP. XV. FRANCIS BACON. 1. (I.) General Remarks. 2. Common estimate of him. 3. We consider only Physical Science. 4. He is placed at the head of the change: 5. (II.) He proclaims a New Era; 6. (III.) By a Change of Method; 7. Including successive Steps; 8. Gradually ascending. 9. (IV.) He contrasts the Old and the New Method. 10. (V.) Has he neglected Ideas? 11. No. 12. Examples of Ideas treated by him. 13. He has failed in applying his Method; 14. (VI.) To the Cause of Heat. 15. He seeks Causes before Laws. 16. (VII.) His Technical Form worthless. 17. He is confused by words. 18. His "Instances." 19. Contain some good Suggestions. 20. (VIII.) His "Idols." 21. (IX.) His view of Utility. 22. (X.) His Hopefulness. 23. (XI.) His Piety.
CHAP. XVI. * ADDITIONAL REMARKS ON FRANCIS BACON. 1. Mr. Ellis's views. 2. Mr. Spedding's views.
CHAP. XVII. FROM BACON TO NEWTON. 1. Harvey. 2. Descartes. 3. Gassendi. 4. Actual Progress in Science. 5. Otto Guericke, &c. 6. Hooke. 7. Royal Society. 8. Bacon's New Atalantis. 9. Cowley. 10. Barrow.
CHAP. XVIII. NEWTON. 1. Animating effect of his Discoveries. 2. They confirm Bacon's views. 3. Newton shuns Hypotheses. 4. His views of Inductive Philosophy. 5. His "Rules of Philosophizing." 6. The First Rule. 7. What is a "True Cause"? 8. Such as are real? 9. Or those which are proved? 10. Use of the Rule. 11. Rule otherwise expressed. 12. The Second Rule. 13. What are Events "of the same kind"? 14. The Third Rule: 15. Not safe. 16. The Fourth Rule. 17. Occult Qualities. 18. Ridiculed. 19. Distinction of Laws and Causes.
CHAP. XIX. LOCKE AND HIS FRENCH FOLLOWERS. 1. Cause of Locke's popularity. 2. Sensational School. 3. His inconsistencies. 4. Condillac, &c. 5. Importance of Language. 6. Ground of this. 7. The Encyclopedists. 8. Helvetius. 9. Value of Arts. 10. Tendency to Reaction.
CHAP. XX. THE REACTION AGAINST THE SENSATIONAL SCHOOL. 1. "Nisi intellectus ipse." 2. Price's "Review." 3. Stewart defends Price. 4. Archbishop Whately. 5. Laromiguière. 6. M. Cousin. 7. M. Ampère. 8. His Classification of Sciences. 9. Kant's Reform of Philosophy. 10. Its Effect in Germany.
CHAP. XXI. FURTHER ADVANCE OF THE SENSATIONAL SCHOOL. M. Auguste Comte. 1. M. Comte on three States of Science. 2. M. Comte rejects the Search of Causes. 3. Causes in Physics. 4. Causes in other Sciences. 5. M. Comte's Practical Philosophy. 6. M. Comte on Hypotheses. 7. M. Comte's Classification of Sciences.
CHAP. XXII. † MR. MILL'S LOGIC. (I.) What is Induction? §§ 1-14. (II.) Induction or Description, §§ 15-23. (III.) In Discovery a new Conception is introduced, §§ 24-37. (IV.) Mr. Mill's Four Methods of Inquiry, §§ 38-40. (V.) His Examples, §§ 41-48. (VI.) Mr. Mill against Hypotheses, §§ 49, 50. (VII.) Against prediction of Facts, §§ 51-53. (VIII.) Newton's Vera Causa, §§ 54, 55. (IX.) Successive Generalizations, §§ 56-62. (X.) Mr. Mill's Hope from Deductions, §§ 63-67. (XI.) Fundamental opposition of our Doctrines, §§ 68-71. (XII.) Absurdities in Mr. Mill's Logic, §§ 72-74.
CHAP. XXIII. * POLITICAL ECONOMY AS AN INDUCTIVE SCIENCE. 1. Moral Sciences. 2. Political Economy. 3. Wages, Profits, and Rents. 4. Premature Generalizations. 5. Correction of these by Induction--Rent. 6. " Wages. 7. " Population.